<text>evaluated development risks and costs in relation to the operational suitability and the overall economics of the entire system. On January 5, 1972, President Richard M. Nixon announced that NASA would proceed with the development of a reusable low-cost Space Shuttle system. NASA and its aerospace industry contractors continued engineering studies through January and February of 1972; finally, on March 15, 1972, NASA announced that the Shuttle would use two solid-propellant rocket motors. The decision was based on information developed by studies which showed that the solid rocket system offered lower development cost and lower technical risk. </text>
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<text> SPACE SHUTTLE DEVELOPMENT HISTORY (2)</text>
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<text> SPACE SHUTTLE DEVELOPMENT HISTORY Space Shuttle News Reference</text>
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<id>18</id>
<text> In September 1969, a few months after the first manned lunar landing, a Space Task Group appointed by the President of the United States to study the future course of U.S. space research and exploration made the recommendation that "... the United States accept the basic goal of a balanced manned and unmanned space program. To achieve this goal, the United States should...develop new systems of technology for space operation...through a program directed initially toward develop-ment of a new space transportation capability..." In early 1970, NASA initiated extensive engineering, design, and cost studies of a Space Shuttle. These studies covered a wide variety of concepts ranging from a fully reusable manned booster and orbiter to dual strap-on solid propellant rocket motors and an expendable liquid propellant tank. In-depth studies of each concept (New Card)</text>
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<text>station-keeping distance and a joint ultraviolet absorption experiment was performed, involving a complicated series of orbital maneuvers. Afterward Apollo entered a separate orbit, and unilateral activities were conducted by both the Soyuz and Apollo crews. The Soyuz landed safely on July 21 after six mission days, and the Apollo flight was successfully concluded on July 24, 1975, nine days after launch. The primary objectives of the program were met, including rendezvous, docking, crew transfer, and control center-crew interaction. All objectives of the scientific experiments were completed. The unilateral portion of the Apollo flight was a full scientific mission in itself and yielded significant results.</text>
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<text> APOLLO-SOYUZ TEST PROJECT (3)</text>
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<text>the orbiting Soyuz. During the next two days, the crews accomplished four transfer operations between the two spacecraft and completed five scheduled experiments. In addition, the crews provided television views of the interior of the two spacecraft, and demonstrated various aspects of space operations. This mission marked the first time that voice, TV, and telemetry were relayed between an orbiting Apollo spacecraft and the ground via the ATS-6 communications satellite. This new technique more than tripled the communications coverage otherwise available. Following the first undocking, a joint solar eclipse experiment was performed. Then Apollo performed a second docking, this time with the Soyuz apparatus locking the two spacecraft together. The final undocking occurred on July 19. The two spacecraft were moved to a (Next Card)</text>
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<text> APOLLO-SOYUZ TEST PROJECT (2)</text>
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<text> The $250 million (1974 dollars) Apollo-Soyuz mission was successfully completed on July 24, 1975. In a fitting conclusion to the Apollo flights, operation of the Saturn 1B launch vehicle was flawless and the spacecraft had the fewest inflight anomalies of any Apollo flown. The scientific payload of 28 experiments supplied a rich harvest of data in many fields. Both the Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft were launched on July 15, 1975; the Apollo lifted off approximately 7 1/2 hours after Soyuz. The Soyuz maneuver to the planned orbit for docking was successfully completed over Europe on the 17th orbit, at an altitude of 222 kilometers (138 miles). The Apollo crew completed the rendezvous sequence as planned; docking with Soyuz was accomplished on July 17 when the Apollo spacecraft was gradually piloted toward</text>
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<text>space, set by the second Skylab crew, by about 50 percent. The Skylab space station reentered the Earth's atmosphere at 12:37 p.m. EDT, July 11, 1979, near southwestern Australia. After over six years in space, the demise of the orbital workshop came on its 34,981st orbit. Skylab program costs totaled $2.6 billion (1972 dollars).</text>
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<text> SKYLAB (5)</text>
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<text> launched all three crews in modified Apollo spacecraft. When the third and final manned Skylab mission ended with splashdown in the Pacific February 8, 1974, the three crews had travelled 113.5 mission kilometers (70.5 million miles) over the 171 days 13 hours 14 minutes they had spent orbiting the Earth. They had circled the Earth 2,476 times, during which they spent over 3,000 hours conducting eight categories of experiments. Space-walk time totalled 41 hours 46 minutes. Data returned included 175,047 frames of solar-observation film and 46,146 frames of Earth-observation film. Approximately 72,725 meters (238,600 ft) of magnetic tape of Earth observations also were returned. A highlight of the third mission was extensive observation and photography of Comet Kohoutek. This mission of over 84 days increased the previous record length in (Next Card)</text>
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<text> SKYLAB (4)</text>
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<text>Temperatures immediately began dropping, and Skylab soon became habitable without space suits. But the many experiments on board demanded far more energy than the four telescope solar panels could generate. Only if the crew freed the crippled solar wing could Skylab fulfill its scientific mission. Using equipment that resembled long-handled pruning shears and a prybar, they pulled the stuck wing free. Skylab was now ready to meet its objectives. The duration of the first mission was 28 days 49 minutes. The second crew was launched July 28; mission duration was 59 days 11 hours 9 minutes. The astronauts were Alan Bean, Jack Lousma, and Dr. Owen Garriott. The third crew launched November 16; mission duration was 84 days 1 hour 16 minutes. Crew members were Gerald Carr, William Pogue, and Dr. Edward Gibson. Saturn IB rockets (Next Card)</text>
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<text> SKYLAB (3)</text>
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<text>shield, temperatures inside Skylab soared, rendering the space station uninhabitable and threatening foods, medicines, and films. The Apollo Telescope Mount, the major item of scientific equipment, did deploy properly, which included unfolding its four solar panels. The countdown for the launch of the first Skylab crew was halted. In Houston, engineers worked to devise a solar parasol to cover the workshop, and to find a way to free the remaining stuck solar wing. On May 25, astronauts Charles "Pete" Conrad, Jr., Dr. Joseph P. Kerwin, and Paul J. Weitz, were launched toward Skylab. After repairing Skylab's broken docking mechanism, which had refused to latch, the astronauts entered the Skylab and erected the mylar parasol through a space access hatch. It shaded part of the area where the protective meteoroid shield had ripped away. (Next Card)</text>
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<text> SKYLAB (2)</text>
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<text> There were four launches in the Skylab Program from Complex 39 at the Kennedy Space Center. The first launch was on May 14, 1973 at 1:30 p.m. A two-stage Saturn V placed the unmanned 90-metric ton (100-ton) Skylab space station in a 434.5 kilometer (270-mile) Earth orbit. As the rocket accelerated past 7,620 meters (25,000 ft), atmospheric drag began clawing at Skylab's meteoroid shield. The metal shield was designed to protect the orbital workshop from tiny space particles and the Sun's scorching heat. Sixty-three seconds after launch the shield ripped away from the lab, trailing an aluminum strap which caught on the unopened solar wing. The shield be- came tethered to the lab while at the same time prying the opposite wing and shield partly open. Later, as the rocket staged, the partly deployed wing and shield were flung into space. With the loss of the (Next Card)</text>
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<text>(210 lbs) of Moon rocks and soil samples to Earth from the Descartes highlands. The final Apollo mission, Apollo 17, was launched December 7, 1972. On the 12-day mission the astronauts explored the Taurus-Littrow landing site, emplaced geophysical instruments, and collected over 108 kilgrams (240 lbs) of samples. The total surface time outside the Lunar Module was 22 hours 4 minutes, exceeding by almost two hours the previous record held by Apollo 16. The Command Module pilot again operated scientific instruments and cameras in lunar orbit, then retrieved the camera film during a 1-hour, 6-minute space walk en route back to Earth. Splashdown in the Pacific occurred December 9, 1972.Apollo program costs were approximately $25 billion (1968 dollars).</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (17)</text>
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<text>Camera film canisters were retrieved by the Command Module pilot from outside the spacecraft during the trans-Earth coast. The Pacific Ocean landing was made on August 7, 1971. Apollo 16, the fifth lunar landing mission, was launched April 16, 1972. In all, the astronauts spent nearly 20 1/4 hours outside the Lunar Module - a new record. In lunar orbit, the Command Module pilot operated a complex array of scientific instruments; two lunar mapping cameras observed geological features on the surface. Once again, a scientific satellite was placed in lunar orbit before the trans-Earth maneuver was performed. On the Earthbound trip the film canisters were retrieved from the lunar cameras outside the Command Module. The spacecraft splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on April 27. The astronauts had returned approximately 95.3 kilograms (Next Card)</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (16)</text>
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<text>on the Moon, the Lunar Module lifted off the surface at 1:47 p.m. EST Saturday, February 6, 1971. Modifications to the spacecraft permitted longer lunar surface stay time and additional scientific instruments in lunar orbit. On July 30 at 6:16 p.m. EDT, the astronauts landed at the Hadley Apennine site. During their 66-hour, 55-minute stay on the Moon, they explored the lunar surface riding the first Lunar Rover vehicle, for a total of 18 hours 36 minutes; collected approximately 77 kilograms (170 lbs) of surface samples; deployed geophysical instruments; and described geological features. In the Command Module, extensive scien -tific experiments were conducted while orbiting the Moon, including the operation of two cameras and gamma ray and X-ray sensors mounted on the Service Module. After 74 lunar revolutions and ejection of a sub- satellite, the spacecraft began its homeward journey. (Next Card)</text>
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<text> Apollo 14 was retargeted to accomplish the mission planned for Apollo 13. The spacecraft was launched at 4:03 p.m. EST Sunday, Jan-uary 31,1971; the Lunar Module touched down on the Moon at 4:17 a.m. EST February 5, within 18.3 meters (60 ft) of the targeted point on the Fra Mauro formation. The astronauts successfully carried out two periods of extravehicular activity on the lunar surface: the first for 4 hours 50 minutes, and the second for 4 hours 35 minutes, totalling 9 hours 25 minutes. They successfully deployed and activated the exper-iments package, the second set of geophysical instruments to transmit data on the Moon's interior and exterior environment to Earth. In addi-tion, they collected 43.5 kilograms (96 lbs) of lunar rocks and soil which included two rocks weighing 4.5 kilograms (10 lbs) each, the largest obtained to date. After spending 33 1/2 hours (Next Card)</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (14)</text>
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<text> Apollo 13 was launched April 11, 1970 to land on the Fra Mauro upland area of the Moon. A rupture of the Service Module oxygen tank at 10:11 p.m. EST, April 13, caused a power failure of the Command and Ser-vice Module electrical system which prevented the lunar landing. The world-wide concern brought forth an explosion of prayers and expres-sions of concern from many of the world's nations. This resulted in a number of "man-made-miracles." The crew used the Lunar Module as a "lifeboat" which served as their command post and living quarters for the remainder of the flight. The Lunar Module descent engine provided propulsion to make corrections in the flight path which sent the space-craft around the Moon on a free-return trajectory for reentry and splashdown in the Pacific Ocean on April 17. (Next Card)</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (13)</text>
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<text>down in the Pacific, southwest of Hawaii, at 12:51 p.m. EDT, July 24, after a flight of 8 days 3 hours 19 minutes. Scientific instruments were left on the Moon, and samples of the Moon's soil and rocks along with still and motion pictures were brought back to Earth. Four months after the Apollo 11 landing, Apollo 12 repeated the journey, landing and exploring at the Ocean of Storms. The Apollo 12 mission, launched November 14, 1969, demonstrated the ability to land at a selected point. The astronauts installed the first Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package on the surface, for continued science reporting after the departure of the astronauts. Two extravehicular activity periods were completed, which included experiments emplace-ment, field geology investigation, and inspection of the Surveyor III lunar lander launched in 1967. (Next Card)</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (12)</text>
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<text> in the Pacific Ocean, eight days and three hours after lift-off. Apollo 11 attained the national goal, set by President Kennedy in1961, of landing men on the Moon and returning them safely to Earth within the decade of the 1960s. The mission was launched precisely on time from Kennedy Space Center at 9:32 a.m. EDT, July 16, by a Saturn V. The Lunar Module touched down in the Moon's Sea of Tranquility at 4:18 p.m. EST, July 20, and Commander Neil Armstrong stepped onto the lunar surface at 10:56 p.m. EDT that evening, followed by Lunar Module pilot Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. Astronaut Michael Collins, the Command Module pilot, orbited above, conducting scientific experiments and taking photographs. Their activities were viewed live around the world by the largest television audience in history. The returning spacecraft splashed (Next Card)</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (11)</text>
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<text>(6-million mile) Earth orbital mission. All major mission objectives were met in the first five days of flight. Apollo 9 was the first all-up manned flight of the Apollo/Saturn V space vehicle, first manned flight of the Lunar Module, and first Apollo extravehicular activity. It included rendezvous and docking, live television, photographic surveys of Earth, and observation of the Pegusus II satellite and the planet Jupiter. This was the fourth Saturn V on-time launch (11:00 a.m. EST). Apollo 10 successfully completed man's second lunar orbital flight, passing within 14.5 kilometers (9 miles) of the lunar surface in a dress rehearsal for the actual lunar landing mission. Launched on May 18, from pad 39B, Apollo 10 spent nearly 62 hours in lunar orbit, sent 19 live color TV transmissions, and splashed down within 6,400 meters (7,000 yards) of its primary recovery ship (Next Card)</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (10)</text>
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<text>successful" mission. Manned by Astronauts Walter Schirra, Don Eisele, and Walt Cunningham, the spacecraft's performance in space was flawless, including eight firings of the spacecraft's primary propulsion system and the first live television broadcast from a manned space vehicle. Apollo 8, with Astronauts Frank Borman, William Anders, and James Lovell, Jr., lifted off on December 21, 1968. It was history's first man-ned flight from Earth to another planetary body. Christmas Day, the astronanuts read the Bible account of creation. In 147 hours, Apollo 8 took its crew on a faultless, half-million-mile space flight, including ten lunar orbits, lunar/Earth photography and live television broadcasts. Apollo 9 splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean north of Puerto Rico on March 13, 1969 after a 10-day, 9.6 million kilometer (Next Card)</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (9)</text>
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<text>Postflight analysis determined the Lunar Module to be ready for manned Earth orbital missions. Apollo 5 was launched aboard a Saturn IB from Launch Complex 37 on January 22, 1968. On April 4, 1968, Apollo 6 became the second unmanned Saturn V mis-sion to demonstrate launch vehicle and spacecraft performance. After its launch from Complex 39, vertical oscillations, or the "Pogo" effect, occurred in the first stage, and some small propellant lines ruptured in upper stages. Otherwise, the mission was considered successful. The first manned Apollo launch, Apollo 7, was on a Saturn IB, and was the last launch from Complex 34. All subsequent Apollo launches were from Complex 39. Lifting off the pad on October 11, 1968, it was to become an 11-day flight. Apollo 7 ended with a precise reentry and splashdown on October 22, and was called a "101 percent (Next Card)</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (8)</text>
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<text>by the previously unflown first and second stages. It proved the restart-in-orbit capability of its third stage, the ability of the Apollo space-craft to reenter Earth's atmosphere at lunar mission return speeds, the overall performance of the integrated space vehicle, and the operational readiness of Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39. All mission ob-jectives were met. The Saturn V placed a total weight of 126,418 kilo-grams (278,699 lbs) in orbit after a near perfect countdown. The spacecraft heat shield performed satisfactorily during the 39,912 kilometer per hour (24,800 mph) plunge into Earth's atmosphere.During the two-day Apollo 5 mission in January, 1968, Lunar Module systems and structural performance of the spacecraft were demonstrated and all test objectives were met. This included two firings of both the ascent and descent propulsion systems.(Next Card)</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (7)</text>
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<text>when a fire erupted inside an Apollo spacecraft during ground testing at Complex 34, resulting in the deaths of Astronauts Virgil Grissom, Edward White, II, and Roger Chafee. After two and a half months of investigation, involving 1,500 people, the Board of Inquiry determined the most likely cause of the accident. Electrical arcing from the spacecraft wiring in a near-total oxygen environment induced a flash fire. After an extensive investigation by an Accident Review Board, NASA followed up with detailed descriptions of corrective actions, schedule modifications, and cost estimates necessary to get the program back on track. On November 9, 1967, the first flight test of the Apollo/Saturn V space vehicle was sucessfully accomplished. Designated Apollo 4, the unmanned flight demonstrated excellent performance (Next Card)</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (6)</text>
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<text> The first phase of the Saturn launch vehicle program was completed in 1965. In ten flights of the Saturn I, ten were successful - an unprecedented record in rocket development. Much technology was proven in the Saturn I program. The rocket guidance system was developed, the concept of clustered rocket engines was validated, and more experience was gained in the use of liquid hydrogen as a fuel. Liquid hydrogen, previously used only in the Centaur stage, provided approximately 40 percent greater power than earlier fuels. The new Saturn IB launch vehicle was successfully flown three times in three previous attempts in 1966. Two of these flights carried spacecraft which satisfactorily completed Apollo command and service module requirements for Earth orbital operations. On January 27,1967, tragedy struck the space program (Next Card)</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (5)</text>
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<text> Later in 1962, NASA announced it was developing the Saturn 1B, which combined the first stage of the Saturn I and the third stage of the Saturn V. This vehicle would perform Earth orbital tests of the Apollo spacecraft. On August 9, 1961, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology was selected to develop the Apollo spacecraft guidance and navigation system. Three and a half months later, NASA selected North American Rockwell for the Apollo spacecraft command and service module system. In mid-July, 1962, NASA selected the lunar orbital rendezvous mode for the lunar mission. This called for development of a two-man lunar module, to be used for landing on the Moon and returning to lunar orbit. On November 7, 1962, Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation was selected to design and build the lunar module. (Next Card)</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (4)</text>
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<text> In January, 1962, NASA announced the planned development of the largest rocket vehicle ever to fly, the mammoth Saturn V. Contracts were awarded to the Boeing Company for the first stage and North American Rockwell for the second stage. The third stage, called the S-IVB, already was under development by Douglas Aircraft Corporation, with its first flights scheduled on top of the Saturn I. The Saturn V first stage was to use a cluster of five F-1 engines that would generate 33,360,000 newtons (7.5 million lbs) of thrust. Thesecond stage utilized a cluster of five J-2 engines that developed a combined thrust of 4.4 million newtons ( one million lbs). The third stage was powered by a single J-2 engine with 889,000 newtons (200,000 lbs) thrust capability. IBM had already started the develop-ment of the instrument unit for the Saturn V. (Next Card)</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (3)</text>
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<text>(now McDonnell Douglas) was selected to build the Saturn I second stage (S-IV) and Rocketdyne was chosen to develop the hydrogen-fueled J-2 engine for future upper stages of the Saturn vehicles. On May 25, 1961, President John F. Kennedy proposed to Congress that the United States accelerate its space program, establishing as a national goal a manned lunar landing and return by the end of the decade. In his report to Congress President Kennedy said: "Now is the time...for this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement, which in many ways may hold the key to our future on Earth." With endorsement by Congress, the national objective of manned lunar exploration created an immediate need for a considerably more powerful booster. (Next Card)</text>
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<text> THE APOLLO PROJECT (2)</text>
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<text> Initial planning for a rocket having a high payload capability began in April, 1957. In August, 1958, studies concluded that a clustered booster of 6,672,000 newtons (1.5 million lbs) thrust was feasible, and the research and development effort began. Initial results validated the engine clustering technique, using existing hardware. The planned vehicle was designated the Saturn 1. Rocketdyne, a division of North American Rockwell Corporation (now Rockwell International), updated the Thor-Jupiter engine and increased its thrust, thus developing the 889,600-newton (200,000-lb) thrust H-1 engine. Concurrently, from advanced studies, the heavy-thrust F-1 engine was conceived, and subsequently used as the power plant for even larger boosters. In July, 1960, Douglas Aircraft Company (Next Card)</text>
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<text>to the final manned flight ending November 15, 1966, Gemini flight time totaled 974 hours 37 minutes 42 seconds. Of this, 969 hours 51 minutes 26 seconds were manned. The astronauts spent a total of 12 hours 12 minutes in extravehicular activity (EVA, or "space-walk" activities). The highest altitude reached by the manned Gemini spacecraft - a world's record at that time - was 1,372.8 kilometers (853 miles) during the Gemini 11 mission. Orbital rendezvous ws accomplished 10 times; docking 9 times. Docking was first accomplished on March 16, 1966, during Gemini 8, and was another Gemini "space first." Also, Gemini and Agena, linked by a tether, orbited Earth for over four hours in a station-keeping exercise aimed at saving maneuvering fuel. Project Gemini was undertaken at a cost of $1.3 billion (1965 dollars). (Next Card)</text>
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<text>402 kilometers (250 miles) radar was switched on. As the gap closed to 80.5 kilometers (50 miles), the astronauts picked up the Agena's flashing beacon and took manual control of Gemini to maneuver it into position. During rendezvous maneuvers the relative speed between the vehicles was cut to less than 3.2 kilometers (2 miles) per hour, so that, when docking, their noses touched gently. On contact, the Gemini's narrow end entered the Agena's target docking adapter. The adapter's latches clamped shut to prevent the two vehicles from slipping apart. Then a motorized Agena unit pulled the Gemini inward. Matching electrical contacts met and gave the astro-nauts direct control of the Agena's on-board equipment. From the first unmanned Gemini flight on April 8,1964 (Next Card)</text>
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<text>stop-and-restart engine, capable of cutoff and reignition at least four times, was important for planned maneuvers with the Gemini capsule. The Agena-D was 9.75 meters (32 ft) long and 1.5 meters (5 ft) in diameter with a cylindrical shape. There was a total of 10 manned Gemini flights, four of which rendezvoused with an Agena stage. A rendezvous mission generally called for launching an Atlas/Agena target vehicle from Complex 14 at Cape Canaveral, then the Gemini liftoff from Complex 19. The Agena was propelled into a circular orbit 298 kilometers (185 miles) up, after which precise velocity and trajectory elements were calculated. The Gemini would then be launched into a lower orbit; by travelling a shorter distance, it would catch up with the Agena. When the distance between the vehicles was (Next Card)</text>
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<text> Project Gemini (3)</text>
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<text> The Gemini spacecraft was similar to but heavier than the Mercury, and the Redstone and Atlas boosters lacked the power to place it in orbit. A modified version of the military Titan II was chosen as the Gemini Launch Vehicle. With a first stage thrust of 1,912,640 newtons (430,000 lbs), the rocket used hypergolic, or self-igniting propellants, which were nonexplosive and an added astronaut safety facor. The Titan II rocket was three meters (10 ft) wide and 27.1 meters (89 ft) long. The combined Gemini-Titan stood 32.9 meters (108 ft) high. Chosen for Gemini's orbital rendezvous and docking was the Agena-D target vehicle, a modified version of the Agena-B second stage that, with Thor or Atlas boosters, had orbited many satellites and launched Mariner and Ranger space probes. The Agena's (Next Card)</text>
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<text> The Gemini spacecraft was designed to be piloted by two astronauts and consisted of two major portions: the re-entry module and the adapter module. Only the re-entry module, containing the life-support cabin where the astronauts rode, returned to Earth. It was comprised of a double-walled inner shell around the crew's pressurized compartment, with an outer shell as the craft's external hull. The adapter module had two separate sections, so that Gemini, as launched, was actually a three-part structure. One purpose of the two-part adapter module was to fit the narrow Gemini capsule to the broader top of the booster. It also contained attitude controls, propellant tanks, electrical components and other support equipment. The section adjacent to the crew's re-entry module included two sets of engines: retro-rockets and space-maneuvering thrusters. (Next Card)</text>
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<text> On May 24, 1962, Astronaut M. Scott Carpenter in Aurora 7 completed another three-orbit flight. Astronaut Walter M. Schirra, Jr., doubled the flight time in space and orbited six times, landing Sigma 7 in a Pacific recovery area. All prior landings had been in the Atlantic. Finally, on May 15-16, 1963 Astronaut L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., completed a 22-orbit mission of 34 1/2 hours in Faith 7, triumphantly concluding the $392.6 million (1961 dollars) Project Mercury program. </text>
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<text> PROJECT MERCURY (3)</text>
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<text>(78,000 lbs) thrust for the suborbital flights and the Air Force Atlas with 1,601,280 newtons (360,000 lbs) thrust for the orbital missions. On May 5, 1961, Astronaut Alan B. Shepard, Jr., was launched from Complex 5 at Cape Canaveral by a Redstone Booster on the first U.S. manned space flight. His suborbital mission of 15 minutes took his Freedom 7 spacecraft 186.7 kilometers (116 miles ) high into space. On July 21, 1961, a Redstone booster hurled Astronaut Virgil I. "Gus" Grissom through the second and last suborbital flight in the Liberty Bell 7. NASA then advanced to the Mercury-Atlas series of orbital missions. Another space milestone was reached on February 20, 1962, when Astronaut John H. Glenn, Jr., became the first American in orbit, circling the Earth three times in Friendship 7. (Next card)</text>
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<text> PROJECT MERCURY (2)</text>
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<text> Project Mercury became an official program of NASA on October 7, 1958. Seven astronauts were chosen in April, 1959 after a nationwide call for jet pilot volunteers. Project Mercury was assigned two broad missions by NASA - first, to investigate man's ability to survive and per- form in the space environment; and second, to develop the basic space technology and hardware for manned space flight programs to come. The one-man Mercury spacecraft was designed and built with a maximum orbiting mass of about 1,451.5 kilograms (3,200 lbs). Shaped somewhat like a bell, the craft was 189.2 centimeters (74.5 in) wide across the bottom and about 2.7 meters (9 ft) tall. The astronaut escape tower added another 5.2 meters (17 ft) for an overall length of approximately 8 meters (26 ft) at launch. Two boosters were chosen - the Army Redstone with 346,944 newtons (Next Card) </text>
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<text> History of Space Flight: Early Years. Mercury to Apollo-Soyuz PM 001 (KSC) November 1965</text>
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<text> Introduction The United States manned space flight effort has progressed through a series of programs of ever increasing scope and complexity. The first Mercury launch from a small concrete slab on Complex 5 at Cape Canaveral required only a few hundred people. The launch of Apollo 11 from gigantic Complex 39 for man's first lunar landing engaged thousands. Each program has stood on the technological achievements of its predecessor. The complex, sophisticated Space Shuttle of today, with its ability to routinely carry six or more people into space, began as a tiny capsule where even one person felt cramped - the Mercury Program. </text>
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<text>American Rocket Society. The test firings and meetings of this group stimulated a growing awareness of rocketry and its capabilities in the American public. Many members of this early society are responsible for current space programs. The first instrumented rocket was launched by Dr. Robert H. Goddard on July 17, 1929. Its instruments consisted of a barometer and a thermometer, with a small camera focused to record their readings at maximum altitude. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union put the first man-made satellite, Sputnik I, into orbit. On January 31, 1958, the United States launched its first satellite, Explorer I. The world had entered the Age of Space.</text>
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<text> History of Space Flight from 160 B.C. to Sputnik (1957) 9.</text>
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<text> Public reaction to the increasing noise and size of Dr. Goddard's rockets forced him to leave Clark University for the southwestern United States where he could continue his work in a more open space without endangering his neighbors. Through continual improvement, his rockets reached 7,500 feet by 1935 and speeds of over 700 miles per hour. By the late 1930s Dr. Goddard was recognized, at least in professional circles, as probably the world's foremost rocket scientist. His work and patents were well known for years to the German Society for Space Travel. Members of this society developed the German V-2 guided missile used during World War II. American rocket enthusiasts formed the American Interplanetary Society in 1930, later changing their name to the (Next Card)</text>
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<text> History of Space Flight from 160 B.C. to Sputnik (1957) 8.</text>
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<text>Institution in 1919 as a report on the investigations and calculations that had occupied him for several years. This paper entitled, "A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes," caught the attention of the press because of a small paragraph on the possibility of shooting a rocket to the moon and exploding a load of powder on its surface. Almost simultaneous to the publication of this paper, Dr. Goddard concluded that a liquid fuel rocket would overcome some of the difficulties encountered with the pellets of powder he had used to power his rockets. For the next 6 years, Dr. Goddard worked to perfect his ideas. By 1926 he was ready for an actual test flight. On March 16 of that year the world's first liquid fuel rocket was launched. The flight, while not spectacular in the distance covered (184 feet), did prove this type of rocket would perform as Dr. Goddard had expected.</text>
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<text> History of Space Flight from 160 B.C. to Sputnik (1957) 7.</text>
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<text>Professor Oberth provided the chief impetus for experimental rocket work in Germany when, in 1923, he published his book, "The Rocket Into Interplanetary Space." Professor Oberth discussed many of the problems still faced by present-day rocket scientists and explained the theories and mathematics involved in lifting an object from the surface of the Earth and sending it to another world. The inspiration for the formation of the German Society for Space Travel (Verein fur Raumschiffahrt) came from Hermann Oberth's book. Both Oberth and Goddard favored the liquid fuel rocket. Much of the rocket work done in Germany was based upon the research and some of the patents of Dr. Goddard. Dr. Goddard, a professor at Clark University in Massachusetts, sent a finished copy of a 69-page manuscript to the Smithsonian (Next Card) </text>
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<text> History of Space Flight from 160 B.C. to Sputnik (1957) 6.</text>
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<text>Britain in 1838. This device (using a Congreve rocket) carried a line from shore to a stranded vessel, enabling the distressed crew to be pulled back to shore on a breeches buoy. This rocket was subsequently used by coastal rescue units. Congreve developed the black powder rocket to just about its maximum capability. Almost a century passed before rocketry advanced. In 1903 a Russian schoolteacher, Konstantin Ziolkovsky, published the first treatise on space travel advocating the use of liquid fuel rockets. This paper remained unknown outside Russia, and at that time little attention was given it by other Russians. While Ziolkovsky's theories remained in obscurity, Hermann Oberth, a Rumanian-German, and Robert H. Goddard, an American, working separately, laid the basis for the age of modern rocketry. (Next Card)</text>
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<text> History of Space Flight from 160 B.C. to Sputnik (1957) 5.</text>
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<text>Chiozza. This was during the third and last Venetian-Genovese war of the 14th century. The Genovese fleet sailed up the Adriatic, laid siege to and captured Chiozza, although later losing the war when the Venetians bottled up the fleet in the Chiozza estuary. The early 19th century brought a period of intense interest in the military rocket. Great Britain's Sir William Congreve was the foremost name in rocketry at that time. He developed a solid propellant rocket which was used extensively in the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812. One of the most spectacular of the Congreve rocket achievements was the razing of the greater part of Copenhagen in 1807. As so often happens with articles designed for war use, the Congreve rocket was adapted to humanitarian purposes. The most useful outgrowth was a lifesaving rocket first patented in (Next Card)</text>
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<text> History of Space Flight from 160 B.C. to Sputnik (1957) 4.</text>
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<text>stage. The history of rocket development is interwoven with evolving ideas of the universe and space travel, because only with the rocket principle is travel in space possible. When the first rocket was fashioned remains a secret of the past, but there is no doubt that the earliest known direct ancestor of our present- day rockets was a Chinese invention. In A.D. 1232, at Kai-fung-fu the Chinese repelled attacking Mongols with the aid of "arrows of flying fire." This was the first recorded use of rockets. These early rockets reached Europe by 1258. They are mentioned in several 13th and 14th century chronicles. In 1379, a lucky hit by a crude powder rocket destroyed a defending tower in the battle for the Isle of (Next Card)</text>
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<text> History of Space Flight from 160 B.C. to Sputnik (1957) 3.</text>
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<text>to the possibility of traveling to other worlds. In rapid succession, such writers as Voltaire, Dumas, Jules Verne, Edgar Allan Poe, H.G. Wells, and many other lesser known authors filled the pages of literature with imaginative tales of space travel. A fascinating novel is "The Brick Moon" by Edward Everett Hale, who is better known for his "The Man Without a Country." First published in 1869, "The Brick Moon" is the first known presentation on the injection of a man-made satellite into orbit. The novel was the first to discuss the manned orbital laboratory and weather, communications, and navi-gation satellites. Today one has only to go to the closest magazine stand or bookstore to find similar stories. Dramatizations have appeared on the motion picture screen, radio, television, and the legitimate (Next Card)</text>
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<text> History of Space Flight from 160 B.C. to Sputnik (1957) 2.</text>
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<text>History of Space Flight from 160 B.C. to Sputnik (1957) From: Space...the new frontier, NASA, EP-6 Rev.</text>
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<text> The beginnings of thought about space flight were a mixture of imagination and vague concepts. The idea of leaving the Earth to travel to a distant world developed only as understanding of the universe and the solar system evolved. In 160 B.C. a part of "Cicero's Republic," entitled "Somnium Scipionis" (Scipio's Dream), presented a conception of the whole universe, a reali-zation of the comparative insignificance of Earth and the visualization of a vast panorama in which appear "stars which we see from Earth." Lucian of Greece wrote his Vera Historia in A.D. 160, the story of a flight to the moon. For centuries no further stories of space travel ap-peared. Only with the renaissance of science and the work of such men as Tycho Brahe, Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, and Galileo did men's minds again become receptive (Next Card)</text>
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<text> History of Space Astronomy "NASA Activities," July/August 1990, Vol. 21, No.4, Pg. 14.</text>
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<text> 1900-NOW - Techniques of celestial mechanics, precursors to the deve- lopment of accurate spacecraft navigation.The mutually beneficial interaction between astrophysics and technology continues today. A Perspective of the Search: Astronomical searches have occupied human thought for millennia. Over the generations, we have succeeded in gaining ever greater insight into the underlying forces at work in the cosmos. In the Space Station era, the family of permanent observatories in space will open the way to new, comprehensive studies of key remain-ing problems in astrophysics which will help us to understand the birth of the universe, the laws of space physics, and the origins of stars.</text>
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<text> History of Space Astronomy "NASA Activities," July/August 1990, Vol. 21, No.4, Pg. 14.</text>
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<text>1800-1900 - Increasingly sophisticated optical innovations by astronomers (William Herschel, Fraunhofer, Lord Rosse, Alvan Clark, and many others).1900-NOW - Hans Bethe's theoretical prediction of hydrogen fusion at the center of the sun, a precursor for all modern fusion efforts. Lyman Spitzer's development of astrophysical plasma theory, the basis of present devices for releasing energy from controlled fusion. Very long baseline radio astronomy techniques used in high-precision geodesy to survey the structure of the Earth. (Next Card)</text>
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<text> History of Space Astronomy "NASA Activities," July/August 1990, Vol. 21, No.4, Pg. 14.</text>
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<text> Over the centuries, astronomy and technology have progressed hand in hand. The study of the universe has benefited from improved observational devices and techniques. By the same token, developments in astronomy have led to practical applications in other disciplines.1500-1600 - Increasingly accurate maps of the sky for navigation.1600-1700 - Christian Huygen's invention of the pendulum clock for navigational time-keeping. Newton's development of calculus, the laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation as a means to explain the motions of plantets and comets. (Next Card)</text>
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<text> Man is still dreaming about flying higher and faster. Research is being done to develop aircraft that can fly faster and also be quieter and more fuel efficient. </text>
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<text> While most designers were working to improve the airplane, a few were working on the helicopter. In 1907 a helicopter was flown about 5 feet in the air, but it was almost impossible to control. In 1939 Igor Sikorsky perfected the single-main-rotor helicopter. The next 40 years saw many improvements inaviation. Airplanes grew from the singleengine propeller planes, such as thoseflown by Lindbergh and Earhart, to presentday jumbo jets, such as the 747.</text>
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<text> In 1919 a prize of 25,000 dollars was offered for the first nonstop flight from New York to Paris. Charles Lindbergh won that prize. He left New York on May 20, 1927 in the "Spirit of St. Louis". He landed in Paris 33 hours and 30 minutes later. Lindbergh became an aviation hero over-night. Amelia Earhart was another famous pilot.In 1932 she became the first woman to fly across the Atlantic Ocean alone. Her flight fromNewfoundland to Ireland took about 14 hours. In1937 she and her navigator set out on a flight around the world. They were last heard from when they were over the Pacific Ocean. All searches failed to find any trace of her or her aircraft.</text>
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<text> Also in 1909, Madame La Baronne de Laroche became the first woman pilot. In that same year the first Army airplane was built. Glenn Curtiss, the father of naval aviation, flew his first successful seaplane in 1911. During that same year one of his other planes landed on the deck of a ship for the first time. The need for better planes during World War I caused the airplane to be greatly improved during that time. Not only could they fly faster but they were much safer. In May of 1918 the United States began air mail service between Washing-ton, D.C. and New York City. After the war ended in November of 1918, many old planes were made into mail planes. </text>
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<text>rudder for control. Now they were ready to build a machine that could fly under its own power. In December of 1903, the brothers returned to Kitty Hawk with their new machine, the Flyer. It had a motor and propellers of their own design. On December 17, 1903, flights were made by Orville and Wilbur Wright. The first lasted for 12 seconds and went 120 feet. In 1909, Louis Bleriot flew his monoplane across the English Channel from France to England. This was the first time anyone had flown across a body of water. It was also the first time an airplane had been flown fromone country to another. </text>
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<text>that were heavier than air. He made more than 2,000 flights. His notes and drawings were studied by students of flight everywhere. Even as boys, the Wright Brothers had been interested in flying. They often watched the buzzards flying and noticed how they twisted the back edge of one wing downward and the back edge of the other upward. They built a kite that had two wings with cords attached at the tips so the wings could be twisted, or wrapped. After their success with the kite, the Wright Brothers experimented with gliders. In 1902, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, they made many successful flights in their glider. This glider had two wings like a kite, but it also had an elevator and a (Next Card)</text>
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<text> 5. History of Flight</text>
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<text> Zeppelins were used during World War I to drop bombs on London. After the war they were used to carry passengers across the Atlantic Ocean and to other parts of the world. The Hindenburg, the largest zeppelin, made 35 trips across the Atlantic Ocean. On May 6, 1937, it exploded and burned while trying to land in New Jersey. Thirty-six of the passengers were killed. Afterthis accident no more zeppelins were built. While the airships were being developed other aircraft were being built with wings. In Germany, Otto Lilienthal was building gliderswith curved wing tops and control surfaces. In1890 he began flights that proved it was possibleto use the lift of the air to fly machines (Next Card)</text>
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<text> Now men were in the air, but they could only drift with the wind. There was little they could do to control the balloons. The dirigible, also called an airship, was a balloon that had an engine and could be steered with a rudder. The first successful dirigible was flown in 1852. It was shaped like a cigar and had a steam engine that turned a propeller. The LaFrance airship, built in1884, was the first airship which could be steered in any direction regardless of wind. It was powered by an electric motor. In 1900 the first zeppelin was built. A zeppelin was a large rigid dirigible with a cigar shaped framework of aluminum. It was named for the man who designed it, Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin of Germany. (Next Card) </text>
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<text>the Montgolfier Brothers in 1782. A duck, a sheep, and a rooster were the first passengers. In November of 1783, two men floated over Paris for 25 minutes in another Montgolfier balloon.</text>
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<script>on mouseuprepeat with y = 1 to 100set cursor to busyglobal t1,t2,t3,t4,t5,t6,t7,t8,t9,t10,t11,t12,t13,t14,t15,¬t16,t17,t18,t19,t20,t21,t22,t23,t24,t25,t26,t27,t28,t29,t30,¬t31,t32,t33,t34,t35,t36,t37,t38,t39,t40,t41,t42,t43,t44global t0, x, r,hat,straw,buff1,buff2,count1,count2,¬t45,t46,t47,t48,t49,t50,t51,t52,t53,t54,t55,t56,t57,t58,t59,t60find whole t0get the resultif count1>=3 and it is not empty thenput the number of this card into hatput the foundchunk into buff1show message boxexit mouseupelseif it is not empty thenadd 1 to count1add 1 to xput "t"&x into rset lockscreen to truego to "Apollo 13 Hyper-Comic"send "mouseup" to button "GlobalFind"elseput the number of this card into hatput the foundchunk into buff1exit mouseupend ifend ifend repeatend mouseupon enterkeyglobal t1,t2,t3,t4,t5,t6,t7,t8,t9,t10,t11,t12,t13,t14,t15,¬t16,t17,t18,t19,t20,t21,t22,t23,t24,t25,t26,t27,t28,t29,t30,¬t31,t32,t33,t34,t35,t36,t37,t38,t39,t40,t41,t42,t43,t44global t0,x,r,hat,straw,buff1,buff2,count1,count2,t45,t46,t47,¬t48,t49,t50,t51,t52,t53,t54,t55,t56,t57,t58,t59,t60hide message boxfind whole t0put 0 into count1put the number of this card into strawput the foundchunk into buff2if straw = hat and buff1 = buff2 thenadd 1 to xput "t"&x into rset lockscreen to truego to "Apollo 13 Hyper-Comic"send "mouseup" to button "GlobalFind"end ifend enterkey</script>
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<layer>background</layer>
<id>19</id>
<text> History of Flight John W. Hartsfield, NASA Lewis Research Center Shirley Norlem, Meadow Lake School, Mpls., Minn.</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>18</id>
<text> Since the earliest times, people have watched the birds in the sky and dreamed of flying. One of the oldest stories of flying is the Greek legend of Daedalus and his son, Icarus. To escape from the island of Crete, they fastened wings of feathers and beeswax to themselves. Daedalus flew safely to Naples, but Icarus flew too near the sun. The wax on his wings melted, and he fell into the sea. Around 1500 Leonardo Da Vinci designed a flying machine called an ornithopter. It had flapping wings which were worked by a man's arms and legs. Though his flying machine didn't work, DaVinci was the first real scientist in the history of flight. (See sketch on next card.) The first successful flying machine was a balloon built by (Next Card)</text>
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